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Some extra functions that are worth discussing are systems that could be accessed from mobile gadgets such as PDA's allowing greater flexibility.The software could be either general which indicates that it is developed by a 3rd celebration company and also made use of by numerous different brokerage firms, a prominent example of this currently is MetaTrader 4. Numerous of the makers of additional forex trading programs such as forex robotics and graph indicator plans will have created their products to function straight out of the box on common platforms whereas there could be assimilation concerns with in-house software.
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You may be able to get a well-paying work with only a graduate degree yet an undergraduate degree is essential in lots of areas to increase pay and climb the corporate ladder. While undergraduate degrees imply you have a good level of expertise, masters levels demonstrate not only a dedication to increasing your understanding about your area yet additionally a dedication to boosting on your own.
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Online programs have typically been likened to diploma mills that hand higher degrees to any individual eager to fork over the money. Masters degree pupils can be assured that the online programs they enlist in are legitimate programs aimed at mentor specialist skills and increasing the potential for higher wages as well as work bankability.
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CORPORATE AND DIVISION STRATEGIC PLANNING. Marketing plays a critical role in corporate strategic planning within successful companies.
Market-oriented strategic planning is the managerial process of developing and maintaining a viable fit among the organization’s objectives, skills, and resources and its changing market opportunities. The aim of strategic planning is to shape the company’s businesses and products so that they yield target profits and growth and keep the company healthy despite any unexpected threats that may arise.
Strategic planning calls for action in three key areas. The first area is managing a company’s businesses as an investment portfolio. The second area involves assessing each business’s strength by considering the market’s growth rate and the company’s position and fit in that market. And the third area is the development of strategy, a game plan for achieving long-term objectives. The complete strategic planning, implementation, and control cycle is shown in Figure 1-4.
Corporate headquarters starts the strategic planning process by preparing statements of mission, policy, strategy, and goals, establishing the framework within which the divisions and business units will prepare their plans. Some corporations allow their business units a great deal of freedom in setting sales and profit goals and strategies. Others set goals for their business units but let them develop their own strategies. Still others set the goals and get involved heavily in the individual business unit strategies.1 Regardless of the degree of involvement, all strategic plans are based on the corporate mission.
Defining the Corporate Mission
An organization exists to accomplish something: to make cars, lend money, provide a night’s lodging, and so on. Its specific mission or purpose is usually clear when the business starts. Over time, however, the mission may lose its relevance because of changed market conditions or may become unclear as the corporation adds new products and markets.
When management senses that the organization is drifting from its mission, it must renew its search for purpose. According to Peter Drucker, it is time to ask some fundamental questions.2 What is our business? Who is the customer? What is of value to the customer? What will our business be? What should our business be? Successful companies continuously raise these questions and answer them thoughtfully and thoroughly.
A well-worked-out mission statement provides employees with a shared sense of purpose, direction, and opportunity. It also guides geographically dispersed employees to work independently and yet collectively toward realizing the organization’s goals. The mission statement of Motorola, for example, is “to honorably serve the needs of the community by providing products and services of superior quality at a fair price to our customers; to do this so as to earn an adequate profit which is required for the total enterprise to grow; and by so doing provide the opportunity for our employees and shareholders to achieve their reasonable personal objectives.”
Good mission statements focus on a limited number of goals, stress the company’s major policies and values, and define the company’s major competitive scopes. These include:
➤ Industry scope: The industry or range of industries in which a company will operate. For example, DuPont operates in the industrial market; Dow operates in the industrial and consumer markets; and 3M will go into almost any industry where it can make money.
➤ Products and applications scope: The range of products and applications that a company will supply. St. Jude Medical aims to “serve physicians worldwide with highquality products for cardiovascular care.”
➤ Competence scope: The range of technological and other core competencies that a company will master and leverage. Japan’s NEC has built its core competencies in computing, communications, and components to support production of laptop computers, televisions, and other electronics items.
➤ Market-segment scope: The type of market or customers a company will serve. For example, Porsche makes only expensive cars for the upscale market and licenses its name for high-quality accessories.
➤ Vertical scope: The number of channel levels from raw material to final product and distribution in which a company will participate. At one extreme are companies with a large vertical scope; at the other extreme are firms with low or no vertical integration that may outsource design, manufacture, marketing, and physical distribution.[1]
➤ Geographical scope: The range of regions or countries in which a company will operate. At one extreme are companies that operate in a specific city or state. At the other extreme are multinationals such as Unilever and Caterpillar, which operate in almost every one of the world’s countries.
A company must redefine its mission if that mission has lost credibility or no longer defines an optimal course for the company.[2] Kodak redefined itself from a film company to an image company so that it could add digital imaging;[3] Sara Lee redefined itself by outsourcing manufacturing and becoming a marketer of brands. The corporate mission provides direction for the firm’s various business units.
Establishing Strategic Business Units
A business can be defined in terms of three dimensions: customer groups, customer needs, and technology.[4] For example, a company that defines its business as designing incandescent lighting systems for television studios would have television studios as its customer group; lighting as its customer need; and incandescent lighting as its technology.
In line with Levitt’s argument that market definitions of a business are superior to product definitions,[5] these three dimensions describe the business in terms of a customer-satisfying process, not a goods-producing process. Thus, Xerox’s product definition would be “We make copying equipment,” while its market definition would be “We help improve office productivity.” Similarly, Missouri-Pacific Railroad’s product definition would be “We run a railroad,” while its market definition would be “We are a people-and-goods mover.”
Large companies normally manage quite different businesses, each requiring its own strategy; General Electric, as one example, has established 49 strategic business units (SBUs). An SBU has three characteristics: (1) It is a single business or collection of related businesses that can be planned separately from the rest of the company; (2) it has its own set of competitors; and (3) it has a manager responsible for strategic planning and profit performance who controls most of the factors affecting profit.
Assigning Resources to SBUs
The purpose of identifying the company’s strategic business units is to develop separate strategies and assign appropriate funding to the entire business portfolio. Senior managers generally apply analytical tools to classify all of their SBUs according to profit potential. Two of the best-known business portfolio evaluation models are theBoston Consulting Group model and the General Electric model.[6]
The Boston Consulting Group Approach
The Boston Consulting Group (BCG), a leading management consulting firm, developed and popularized the growth-share matrix shown in Figure 1-5. The eight circles represent the current sizes and positions of eight business units in a hypothetical company.
The dollar-volume size of each business is proportional to the circle’s area. Thus, the two largest businesses are 5 and 6. The location of each business unit indicates its market growth rate and relative market share.
The market growth rate on the vertical axis indicates the annual growth rate of the market in which the business operates. Relative market share, which is measured on the horizontal axis, refers to the SBU’s market share relative to that of its largest competitor in the segment. It serves as a measure of the company’s strength in the relevant market segment. The growth-share matrix is divided into four cells, each indicating a different type of business:
➤ Question marks are businesses that operate in high-growth markets but have low relative market shares. Most businesses start off as question marks as the company tries to enter a high-growth market in which there is already a market leader. A question mark requires a lot of cash because the company is spending money on plant, equipment, and personnel. The term question mark is appropriate because the company has to think hard about whether to keep pouring money into this business.
➤ Stars are market leaders in a high-growth market. A star was once a question mark, but it does not necessarily produce positive cash flow; the company must still spend to keep up with the high market growth and fight off competition.
➤ Cash cows are former stars with the largest relative market share in a slow-growth market. A cash cow produces a lot of cash for the company (due to economies of scale and higher profit margins), paying the company’s bills and supporting its other businesses.
➤ Dogs are businesses with weak market shares in low-growth markets; typically, these generate low profits or even losses.
After plotting its various businesses in the growth-share matrix, a company must determine whether the portfolio is healthy. An unbalanced portfolio would have too many
dogs or question marks or too few stars and cash cows. The next task is to determine what objective, strategy, and budget to assign to each SBU. Four strategies can be pursued:
1. Build: The objective here is to increase market share, even forgoing short-term earnings to achieve this objective if necessary. Building is appropriate for question marks whose market shares must grow if they are to become stars.
2. Hold: The objective in a hold strategy is to preserve market share, an appropriate strategy for strong cash cows if they are to continue yielding a large positive cash flow.
3. Harvest: The objective here is to increase short-term cash flow regardless of long-term effect. Harvesting involves a decision to withdraw from a business by implementing a program of continuous cost retrenchment. The hope is to reduce costs faster than any potential drop in sales, thus boosting cash flow. This strategy is appropriate for weak cash cows whose future is dim and from which more cash flow is needed. Harvesting can also be used with question marks and dogs.
4. Divest: The objective is to sell or liquidate the business because the resources can be better used elsewhere. This is appropriate for dogs and question marks that are dragging down company profits.
Successful SBUs move through a life cycle, starting as question marks and becoming stars, then cash cows, and finally dogs. Given this life-cycle movement, companies should be aware not only of their SBUs’ current positions in the growth-share matrix (as in a snapshot), but also of their moving positions (as in a motion picture). If an SBU’s expected future trajectory is not satisfactory, the corporation will need to work out a new strategy to improve the likely trajectory.
The General Electric Model
An SBU’s appropriate objective cannot be determined solely by its position in the growth-share matrix. If additional factors are considered, the growth-share matrix can be seen as a special case of a multifactor portfolio matrix that General Electric (GE) pioneered. In this model, each business is rated in terms of two major dimensions— market attractiveness and business strength. These two factors make excellent marketing sense for rating a business. Companies are successful to the extent that they enter attractive markets and possess the required business strengths to succeed in those markets. If one of these factors is missing, the business will not produce outstanding results. Neither a strong company operating in an unattractive market nor a weak company operating in an attractive market will do well.
Using these two dimensions, the GE matrix is divided into nine cells, as shown in Figure 1-6. The three cells in the upper-left corner indicate strong SBUs suitable for investment or growth. The diagonal cells stretching from the lower left to the upper right indicate SBUs of medium attractiveness; these should be pursued selectively and managed for earnings. The three cells in the lower-right corner indicate SBUs low in overall attractiveness, which the company may want to harvest or divest.[7]
In addition to identifying each SBU’s current position on the matrix, management should also forecast its expected position over the next 3 to 5 years. Making this determination involves analyzing product life cycle, expected competitor strategies,
new technologies, economic events, and so on. Again, the purpose is to see where SBUs are as well as where they appear to be headed.
Critique of Portfolio Models
Both the BCG and GE portfolio models have a number of benefits. They can help managers think more strategically, better understand the economics of their SBUs, improve the quality of their plans, improve communication between SBU and corporate management, identify important issues, eliminate weaker SBUs, and strengthen their investment in more promising SBUs.
However, portfolio models must be used cautiously. They may lead a firm to overemphasize market-share growth and entry into high-growth businesses or to neglect its current businesses. Also, the models’ results are sensitive to ratings and weights and can be manipulated to produce a desired location in the matrix. Finally, the models fail to delineate the synergies between two or more businesses, which means that making decisions for one business at a time might be risky. There is a danger of terminating a losing SBU that actually provides an essential core competence needed by several other business units. Overall, though, portfolio models have improved managers’ analytical and strategic capabilities and allowed them to make better decisions than they could with mere impressions.[8]
Planning New Businesses, Downsizing Older Businesses
Corporate management often desires higher sales and profits than indicated by the projections for the SBU portfolio. The question then becomes how to grow much faster than the current businesses will permit. One option is to identify opportunities to achieve further growth within the company’s current businesses (intensive growth opportunities). A second option is to identify opportunities to build or acquire businesses that are related to the company’s current businesses (integrative growth opportunities). A third option is to identify opportunities to add attractive businesses that are unrelated to the company’s current businesses (diversification growth opportunities).
➤ Intensive growth. Ansoff has proposed the product–market expansion grid as a framework for detecting new intensive growth opportunities.[9] In this grid, the company first considers whether it could gain more market share with its current products in current markets (market-penetration strategy) by encouraging current customers to buy more, attracting competitors’ customers, or convincing nonusers to start buying its products. Next it considers whether it can find or develop new markets for its current products (market-development strategy). Then it considers whether it can develop new products for its current markets (product-development strategy). Later it will also review opportunities to develop new products for new markets (diversification strategy).
➤ Integrative growth. Often a business’s sales and profits can be increased through backward integration (acquiring a supplier), forward integration (acquiring a distributor), or horizontal integration (acquiring a competitor).
➤ Diversification growth. This makes sense when good opportunities exist outside the present businesses. Three types of diversification are possible. The company could seek new products that have technological or marketing synergies with existing product lines, even though the new products themselves may appeal to a different group of customers (concentric diversification strategy). Second, the company might search for new products that appeal to its current customers but are technologically unrelated to the current product line (horizontal diversification strategy). Finally, the company might seek new businesses that have no relationship to the company’s current technology, products, or markets (conglomerate diversification strategy).
Of course, companies must not only develop new businesses, but also prune, harvest, or divest tired, old businesses in order to release needed resources and reduce costs. Weak businesses require a disproportionate amount of managerial attention; managers should therefore focus on growth opportunities rather than wasting energy and resources trying to save hemorrhaging businesses.
[1] See “The Hollow Corporation,” Business Week, March 3, 1986, pp. 57–59. Also see William H. Davidow and Michael S. Malone, The Virtual Corporation (New York: HarperBusiness, 1992).
[2] For more discussion, see Laura Nash, “Mission Statements—Mirrors and Windows,” Harvard Business Review, March–April 1988, pp. 155–56.
[3] For more on Kodak’s imaging strategy, see Irene M. Kunii, “Fuji: Beyond Film,” Business Week, November 22, 1999, pp. 132–38.
[4] Derek Abell, Defining the Business: The Starting Point of Strategic Planning (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980), ch. 3.
[5] Theodore Levitt, “Marketing Myopia,” Harvard Business Review, July–August 1960, pp. 45–56.
[6] See Roger A. Kerin, Vijay Mahajan, and P. Rajan Varadarajan, Contemporary Perspectives on Strategic Planning (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1990).
[7] A hard decision must be made between harvesting and divesting a business. Harvesting a business will strip it of its long-run value, in which case it will be difficult to find a buyer. Divesting, on the other hand, is facilitated by maintaining a business in a fit condition in order to attract a buyer.
[8] For a contrary view, however, see J. Scott Armstrong and Roderick J. Brodie, “Effects of Portfolio Planning Methods on Decision Making: Experimental Results,” International Journal of Research in Marketing (1994), pp. 73–84.
[9] The same matrix can be expanded into nine cells by adding modified products and modified markets. See S. J. Johnson and Conrad Jones, “How to Organize for New Products,” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1957, pp. 49–62.
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